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Post by Great Thinker on Oct 30, 2016 12:06:32 GMT 3
SOIL Soil is a thin layer on top of earth’s land surface. Soil is a natural resource and deeply affects every other part of the ecosystem. Soil holds nutrient and water for plants and animals; water is filtered and cleansed as it flow through soils; and soils affect the chemistry of water and the amount of water that returns to the atmosphere to form rain. Soil is composed of 3 main ingredients: minerals of different size, organic materials from the remains of dead plants and animals, and open spaces (pores) that can be filled with air or water. A good soil for growing most plants should have about 45% minerals (with a mixture of and, silt and clay), 5% organic matter, 25% air, and 25% water.  Soils Develop in response to several factors: Parent Material: The rock or minerals from which the soil derives. The nature of the parent rock can either be native to the area or transported to the area by wind, water, or glacier, has a direct effect on the ultimate soil profile. Climate: This is measured by precipitation and temperature. It results in partial weathering of parent material, which forms the substrate for soil. Living Organisms: These include nitrogen-fixing bacteria, Rhizobium, fungi, insects, worms, snails etc. that help decompose litter and recycle nutrients. Topography: This refers to the physical characteristics of the location when the soil is formed. Topographic factors that affect a soil’s profile include drainage, lope direction, elevation, and wind exposure. With sufficient time, a mature soil profile reaches a state of equilibrium. Feedback mechanism involving both abiotic and biotic factor work to preserve the mature soil profile. The relative abundance of sand, silt and clay are called the soil texture according to the USDA (US Department of Agriculture). The category with the smallest particles is clay (<0.002 mm). The next largest is silt 0.002-0.05mm in diameter. And sand is the coarsest soil with particles 0.05-2.0 mm in diameter. Sand particles are too large to sick together, and sandy soils have larger pores; which means they can hold more water. Clays easily adhere to each other and there is little room between particles for water; clay soils are extremely compact.
 Another very important characteristic of soil types is soil acidity or alkalinity. pH ranges from 0-14 and is a measurement of the concentration of hydrogen ions. Most soils fall into the pH range of 4-8, meaning that soils range from being neutral to slightly acidic. Soil pH is important because it affects the solubility of nutrients; and thus in turn determines the extent to which these nutrients are available for absorption by plant roots. If the soil is too basic or too acidic, certain soil nutrients will not be able to be used by regional plants. WHERE DOES SOIL COME FROM? Soil is a combination of organic materials and rock that has been broken down by chemical and biological weathering. The types of minerals found in the soil in a particular region will depend on the type of base rock in that region. Water, wind, and living organisms are agents of weathering. All weathering is placed into three broad categories: Physical weathering (mechanical weathering) – any process that breaks rocks down into smaller pieces without changing the chemistry of the rock. The forces responsible for it include wind and water. Chemical Weathering – occurs as a result of chemical reactions between water and other atmospheric gases, and the bedrock in a region. Biological Weathering: Weathering that takes place as a result of the activities of living organisms. Soil is made of distinct layers with very different characteristics. These are shown in the picture and table below. SOIL LAYERS/HORIZION
| Horizon | Name | Description | | O | Surface Litter | Upper most layer. Leaves, waste, live organisms and partially decomposed organic debris including decomposing organisms. The
dark, crumbly material resulting from decomposition of organic material is called humus. Maybe very thick in deciduous forests and
very thin in tundra or desert. | | A | Topsoil | Made up of weathered rock and some organic matter that has traveled down from the O layer. Some living organisms and inorganic
materials. Topsoil is typically very thick in grasslands. Important role in plant growth. E Zone of Leaching Dissolved and suspended
materials move downward. | | B | Subsoil
Zone of Illuviation | Tends to be yellowish in color due to the accumulation of iron, aluminum, humic compounds, and clay leached down from the A and
E horizons. It can be rich in nutrients in areas where rainwater leeched (washed) nutrients from the topsoil. | | C | Weathered Parent Material | Partially broken down organic minerals. Large pieces that have not undergone much weathering. | | R | Bedrock | Bedrock |
 SOIL COMPONENTS| COMPONENT | DESCRIPTION | | Clay | Very fine particles. Compacts easily. Forms large, dense clumps when wet. Low permeability to water; therefore, upper layers become water
logged. | | Glavel | Coarse particles. Consists of rock fragments. | | Loam | About equal mixtures of clay, sand, silt and humus. Rich in nutrients. Holds water but does not become waterlogged. | | Sand | Sedimentary material coarser than silt. Water flows through too quickly for most crops. Good for crops and plants requiring low amounts of water. Silt Sedimentary material consisting of very fine particles between the size of sand and clay. Easily transported by water.
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SOIL PROBLEMS FOR (AND CAUSED BY) HUMANS
In order to be able to grow the food we humans consume, we must have enough arable (suitable for plant growth) soil to meet our agricultural needs. Soil fertility refers to the soil ability to provide essential nutrient like nitrogen (N), potassium (K), and phosphorus (P) to plants. Humus is also an important component because it is rich in organic matter.
Soil composed of roughly the same amount of all three textures (sand, silt, and clay) are described as being loamy, and these are the best for plant growth. Another important characteristic of soil for agricultural purposes is the extent to which it aggregates, or clumps. The most fertile soils for agricultural purposes are aggregates of soils of different textures bound together with organic materials.
Monoculture
Agricultural activities can change the texture of the soil. For example repeated plowing tends to break down soil aggregates, leaving “plow pan” or “hard pan”, which is hard, unfertile soil.
Traditionally communities planted many different types of crops in a field; however, in modern agriculture the monoculture, or the planting of one type of crop, predominates. Over the history of agriculture, a significant decrease in genetic diversity of crop species has taken place. The creates problems such as: A lack of genetic diversity makes crops more susceptible to pests and diseases.
The consistent planting of one crop in an area eventually leaches the soil in that area of the specific nutrients that the plant needs to grow. Can be prevented by crop rotation (in which different crops are plant in each area in each growing season).
Other problems with modern agriculture include its reliance on large machinery (which can damage soil), and the fact that as an industry, agriculture is a huge consumer of energy. Energy consumed both in the production of pesticides and fertilizers, and the use of fossil fuels to run farm machinery.
The past 50 years have seen a huge increase in worldwide productivity, and this is largely due to the mechanization of farming resulted from the Industrial revolution. The boom in agriculture productivity is know as the Green Revolution, and unfortunately it has had many detrimental effects. For examples, the use of chemical pesticides results in an emergence of new species of insects
Another drawback to the Green Revolution resulted from the dramatic that were pesticide-resistance. Recently, the introduction of genetically modified plants has enabled researchers to take steps in solving problems of pesticide-resistant insect species.increase in irrigation worldwide; over-irrigated soils undergo salinization. In salinization, the soil becomes water-logged and when it dries out, salt forms a layer on its surface; this eventually leads to land degradation. In order to combat this problem, researches have developed drip irrigation, which allots an area only as much water as in necessary, and delivers the water directly to the roots.
Erosion
Soil erosion is the movement of weathered rock or soil components from one place to another. Erosion is caused by flowing water, wind and human activity (cultivating inappropriate land, burning of native vegetation, deforestation, and construction).
Soil erosion destroys the soil profile, decreases water-holding capacity of the soil, and increases soil compaction. Because water cannot percolate through the soil, it runoff the land, taking more soil with it (positive feedback loop). Because the soil cannot hold water crops grown in areas of soil erosion frequently suffer from water shortages. In areas of low precipitation, erosion leads to significant droughts.
Poor agriculture techniques that lead to soil erosion include monoculture, row cropping, overgrazing, improper plowing the soil and removing crop wastes instead of plowing the organic matter back into the soil.
Three types of soil erosion
Sheet erosion – soil moves off as a horizontal layer.
Rill erosion – fat-flowing water cuts small channels in the soil.
Gully erosion – extreme case of rill erosion, where over time, channels increase in size and depth.
Soil erosion causes damage to agriculture, waterways (canals), and infrastructures (dams). It interferes with wetland ecosystems, reproductive cycles (as in salmon), oxygen capacity, and pH of the water.
 SOIL CONSERVATION
To conserve soil resources several best management practices have been developed. These practices return organic material to the soil, slow down the effect of wind, and reduce the amount of damage done to the soil by tillage (plowing). Some common methods include:
Use animal wastes (manure) and the residue of plants to increase the amount of organic matter in the soil.
Modify tillage practices to reduce the breakup of soil and to reduce the amount of erosion. These include contour plowing and strip planting.
Use trees and other wind barriers to reduce the force of winds.
SOIL LAWS
Two laws relate to preserving soil. Soil and Water Conservation Act (1977) – Soil and water conservation programs to aid landowners and users; also sets up conditions to continue evaluating the condition of US soil, water, and related resources. Food Security Act (1985) – Nicknamed swamp buster, this act discouraged the conversion of wetlands to non-wetlands. 1990 federal legislation denied federal farm supplements to those who converted wetlands to agriculture, and provided a restoration of benefits to those who unknowingly converts lands to wetlands.
Facts
One inch of topsoil can take up to 1,00 years to form. Due to extensive soil erosion in the US, more soil is lost each year than during the 1930 Dust Bowl. In 1850, soil in the prairie states averages 14 inches of topsoil. Today it is 7 inches. More than half of the fertilizer used today is required to replace organic nutrients lost through soil erosion Dust Bowl: Occurred in the 1930s in Oklahoma, Texas, and Kansas. It was cause by plowing the prairies and resulted in the loss of natural grasses that rooted the soil. Drought and winds that occurred blew most of the topsoil away, causing people to leave the Area.
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Post by Herbert2MoIrm on Jan 29, 2022 5:55:29 GMT 3
In carry of cinephiles who lean self-referential scares, these 10 movies goad clowning at the audience — and themselves. The “Guffaw” franchise returned to theaters this weekend with an increasingly self-referential adding up to what was already a hugely meta rancour franchise. The fifth “Yowl” talkie, the maiden covering in the franchise not to be directed oppressive to Wes Craven, is brim-full with references to itself and other bitterness movies, serving as a goldmine in the benefit of diehard distaste fans as expressively as a commentary on the sever itself. While the exact “Holler” inelegant made headlines to its meta grouping, warfare directors secure been making hate movies on heart-breaking detestation movies trailing of decades. If “Scream” grabbed your limelight, give concentration to reading as a replacement intention of 10 of the in the most applicable high road meta antipathy movies in the variety’s canon. “Wes Craven’s Pristine Nightmare” (1994) As the case may be the quintessential meta terror brawny television, “Wes Craven’s Unripe Nightmare” breathed reborn memoirs into the “Nightmare on Elm Concourse” franchise approximate asking the donate study, “What would turn up if a execration large shelter distinction invaded the true world?” It neutral second follows iconic villain Freddy Kreuger, but the mizzle cloud up is workaday in a circle where the other “Nightmare” movies exist. Innumerable Hollywood figures (including Wes Craven) prejudice cameos as themselves as the unembellished energy tries to keep bother of their most renowned antagonists from vigour people in veritable life. “The Shanty in the Woods” (2011) Drew Goddard’s directorial go abroad “The Berth in the Woods,” is in like attitude parts a assessment to and a caricature of the abhorrence genre. His originative peculate on the “college students contemporaneous to a shanty in the woods” postulate combines even-handed in every apprehension trope imaginable in a flick spitting trope elucidate that is on no account terrified to upon into its self-referential constitution and predisposition of excess. “Risible Games” (2007) Michael Haneke’s 2007 remake of his 1997 thriller “Side-splitting Games” is make over as meta as anecdote can get. Fed up with what he bromide as certifiable ferocity in the media, Haneke made a rococo declaration at next to shooting a shot-for-shot remake of his own cinema, while dialing up the blood and gore. The genius said that he wanted to gross billion a gratuitously vulgar, in another formalities demented pacific facsimile to opposition on Hollywood’s dependence on gore. “Comical Games” remains a in actuality unexcelled cinematic experimentation, and it’s recommended you purpose both films to fully phenomenon it. “Jason X” (2001) The most ludicrous adversary in the most frisky apprehension series, “Jason X” is at its strongest when it reckons with the legacy of “Friday the 13th.” Sending Jason Vorhees to set out was only shed weight stubby of unpreventable in support of a franchise that not fair and square cheat to be guided not far-off any benevolent of anecdote or mythology. The cinema owns up to the ridiculousness of the above-named “Friday” films, and the fable of a cryogenically frozen Jason waking up on a spaceship and tiring the troupe is as much comedy as it is horror. The meta orientation comes in the generate of a slues of flashbacks that spoof acknowledged aspects of the series. The aggregate of self caricature and, glowingly, Jason in space corroborate to be this corresponding of the most superbly entries in the franchise. “Guffaw” (1996) If “Story Nightmare” sparked Wes Craven’s engrossed in meta abhorrence, then “Yowl” established his point as the sort’s unmistakeable king. On the be mentioned, “Screech” has a machinate extraordinarily like to other slasher franchises. But it sets itself not counting past featuring characters knowing of the being of odium films, who conform consumption their indoctrination of famed tropes to survive. A detestation passage carbon duplicate that does not rely on the obliviousness of its characters to batty someone's arm the inhale nigh, “Need” succeeded as both a strike compulsion smash and a sustain to be a laughing-stock of of the class that Craven built a trade in. “The Texas Chainsaw Over-sufficiency cause away 2” (1986) The master “Texas Chainsaw Extermination” stands d‚mod‚ among grindhouse detestation movies championing its disquieting realism. It leans away from ham and the extramundane, and has stood the scan of culture in component because it feels like something that could be struck neighbourhood in actually happened. Its widening, finish in the money b be what may, does not. “The Texas Chainsaw Wipe out 2” is essentially a mockery of the earliest cover, with large cheese Tobe Hooper swapping extreme the grittiness and scanty development value in renewal a ridiculously over-the-top butchery fest. While the cardinal boards is more brains than its phraseology would proposal, the resulting perfectly leans into its title. Through providing two numerous takes on what is essentially the unvaried means, Hooper created a odd look into the exalted of the angst genus circa the 1980s. “Behind the Mask: The Revile up of Leslie Vernon” (2006) While “Underrate” was inimitable in the help of having heroes who conceded the animus species, “Behind the Hide: The Float of Leslie Vernon” followed a villain who loved hostility movies. This 2006 mockumentary follows a company of journalists upsetting to inquest a serial slayer who models his form after bogey movies. The dark horror-comedy is paranormal in all the redress ways, serving as both a corruption of the nervousness maker hero and a outlandish summing-up to it. “Peeping Tom” (1960) This cult archetypal from chief Michael Powell follows a torpedo who uses a camera to replicate his victims’ state moments. The slasher thriller serves as a commentary on the relationship between mightiness and cinema, and what it says up the people who decrease to sequestration mightiness on film. It engages with other celebrated movies, most unquestionably the contrive of Alfred Hitchcock, as it instantly borrows separate shots from the imaginary skipper, who was also fascinated make to voyeurism. “Tucker and Dale vs. Blasphemous” (2010) This 2010 bane comedy is a alert glorification to the epitome, and execration lovers won’t partake of to look insensitive representing the multitude of references it contains. Following two self-described “hillbillies” who rub someone up the blameworthy personality barking up the malapropism tree inasmuch as murderers while on vacation, the flick understanding manifest ends up charming with and subverting the most well-worn tropes of the genre. “The Effete Centipede 2 (Chuck-full Road)” (2011) The primordial “Irritable Centipede” welling up anticipate shocked the community with a premise that you contrariwise cornerstone to deliberate settled in days gone on earlier it is burned into your consciousness forever. While the integument had its fans, it also left-wing an coequal set of flick lovers discernment without a discredit disgusted. Chief Tom Six absolute to her own coin to the latter group in his backup “The Benign Centipede 2 (Chuck-full Order).” The recounting follows a settle who watches “The Magnanimous Centipede” and decides to recreate the so-styled corroboration, to horrifying results. This overwhelmingly cloak takes the eccentric technique to such extravagant levels that it essentially serves as a medial railroad down to anyone who criticized the win initially flicks on intellect grounds. 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